Robert Koch: A Tribute

Today is the   birth day of Robert Koch, famously known as "Father of Bacteriology" . Below is   a rare photograph of Robert Koch visiting India in 1897. This rare photograph  is shared from the collections of   Professor Dr. C.S.Bhaskaran,  a renowned microbiologist and a great teacher with a passion towards history and developments of microbiology as a science.

Dr. C.S.Bhaskaran

***

In 1897, Robert Koch visited  IVRI at Mukteswar.

 

(click on the image for a larger size)

History of the visit and IVRI :

 Source : http://ivri.nic.in/

The Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI) at Izatnagar was initially established as the Imperial Bacteriological Laboratory in 1889 at Pune  for conducting research for the protection of Indian livestock wealth from the dreaded diseases.  Dr. Alfred Lingard, a distinguished medical bacteriologist was appointed in 1891 as incharge of the laboratory. Within a short period of two years the seriousness and danger of handling the micro-organisms of infectious diseases and pathological materials in the densely populated city of Pune was realised and consequently, the laboratory was shifted in 1893 to an isolated but beautiful site amidst the dense conifer forest of Mukteswar in Kumaon hills of the Himalayas situated at about 1500 m above the mean sea level in United Province. Lingard had studied bacteriology in Germany and was instrumental for the historical visit of three renowned bacteriologists, Drs. Robert Koch, Pfeiffer and Gaffky to Mukteswar in 1897 to advise on methods for the prevention and control of rinderpest. 

The Foundation stone of IVRI

Robert Koch visiting India in 1897 (sitting L to R : A.Lingar, Robert Koch, R.Pfeiffer, G.Gaffaky)

***

A TRIBUTE TO ROBERT KOCH

Robert Heinrich Herman Koch   was born on December 11, 1843, at Clausthal [now Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Ger.] in the Upper Harz Mountains.  In 1862 Koch went to the University of Göttingen to study medicine. Here the Professor of Anatomy was Jacob Henle and Koch was, no doubt, influenced by Henle's view, published in 1840, that infectious diseases were caused by living, parasitic organisms. After taking his M.D. degree in 1866, Koch went to Berlin for six months of chemical study and there came under the influence of Virchow. In 1867 he settled, after a period as Assistant in the General Hospital at Hamburg, in general practice, first at Langenhagen and soon after, in 1869, at Rackwitz, in the Province of Posen. Here he passed his District Medical Officer's Examination. In 1870 he volunteered for service in the Franco-Prussian war and from 1872 to 1880 he was District Medical Officer for Wollstein. It was here that he carried out the epoch-making researches which placed him at one step in the front rank of scientific workers. 

The founder of modern bacteriology, he is known for his role in identifying the specific causative agents of tuberculosis, cholera, and anthrax and for giving experimental support for the concept of infectious disease.  In addition to his trail-blazing studies on these diseases, Koch created and improved laboratory technologies and techniques in the field of microbiology, and made key discoveries in public health. His research led to the creation of Koch’s postulates, a series of four generalized principles linking specific microorganisms to specific diseases that remain today the "gold standard" in medical microbiology.  As a result of his groundbreaking research on tuberculosis, Koch received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1905.

 

Source :
1. http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1905/koch-bio.html
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Koch

 

                            Dr. C.S.Bhaskaran

The Foundation stone of IVRI

Robert Koch visiting India in 1897

(sitting L to R : A.Lingar, Robert Koch, R.Pfeiffer, G.Gaffaky)

New vaccine against tuberculosis and leprosy

A new vaccine offers protection against tuberculosis and leprosy :
Aug 20, 2014 : In a breakthrough, US researchers have found that an improved tuberculosis vaccine can offer strong protection against leprosy. In lab experiments over mice, researchers found that rBCG30, a recombinant variant of BCG that over expresses a highly abundant 30 kDa protein of the tuberculosis bacterium known as Antigen 85B, is superior to BCG in protecting against tuberculosis in animal models, and also cross protects against leprosy.
In addition, they found that boosting rBCG30 with the antigen 85B protein also expressed by the leprosy bacillus provides considerably stronger protection against leprosy.


 The original article published in : Infection and Immunity 
( http://iai.asm.org/content/82/9/3900.abstract)  
rBCG30-Induced Immunity and Cross-Protection against Mycobacterium leprae Challenge Are Enhanced by Boosting with the Mycobacterium tuberculosis 30-Kilodalton Antigen 85B
Thomas P. Gillisa, Michael V. Tulliusb and Marcus A. Horwitzb
J. L. Flynn, Editor
ABSTRACT
Leprosy remains a major global health problem and typically occurs in regions in which tuberculosis is endemic. Vaccines are needed that protect against both infections and do so better than the suboptimal Mycobacterium bovis BCG vaccine. Here, we evaluated rBCG30, a vaccine previously demonstrated to induce protection superior to that of BCG against Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium bovis challenge in animal models, for efficacy against Mycobacterium leprae challenge in a murine model of leprosy. rBCG30 overexpresses the M. tuberculosis 30-kDa major secretory protein antigen 85B, which is 85% homologous with the M. leprae homolog (r30ML). Mice were sham immunized or immunized intradermally with BCG or rBCG30 and challenged 2.5 months later by injection of viable M. leprae into each hind footpad. After 7 months, vaccine efficacy was assessed by enumerating the M. leprae bacteria per footpad. Both BCG and rBCG30 induced significant protection against M. leprae challenge. In the one experiment in which a comparison between BCG and rBCG30 was feasible, rBCG30 induced significantly greater protection than did BCG. Immunization of mice with purified M. tuberculosis or M. leprae antigen 85B also induced protection against M. leprae challenge but less so than BCG or rBCG30. Notably, boosting rBCG30 with M. tuberculosis antigen 85B significantly enhanced r30ML-specific immune responses, substantially more so than boosting BCG, and significantly augmented protection against M. leprae challenge. Thus, rBCG30, a vaccine that induces improved protection against M. tuberculosis, induces cross-protection against M. leprae that is comparable or potentially superior to that induced by BCG, and boosting rBCG30 with antigen 85B further enhances immune responses and protective efficacy.
****


The next step is to test the rBCG30 vaccine for efficacy in humans against TB. If it is effective against TB, then the next step would be to test its effectiveness in humans against leprosy.

(Reproduced from  :
 1. http://iai.asm.org/content/82/9/3900.abstract
2.  http://www.firstpost.com/living/new-vaccine-offer-protection-tuberculosis-leprosy-study-1672497.html;  and
3. http://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/new-vaccine-may-fight-both-tuberculosis-and-leprosy-114082000714_1.html)

The Power of Self Confidence

A short piece of inspiring story shared by one of my friend through email. It portraits the  hidden powers of the self confidence. Though not at such large scale, we too often encounter such phenomena in our life.
***
A business executive was deep in debt and could see no way out.  Creditors were closing in on him. Suppliers were demanding payment.  He sat on the park bench, head in hands, wondering if anything could save  his company from bankruptcy.

Suddenly an old man appeared before him.  "I can see that something is troubling you," he said.  After listening to the executive's woes, the old man said, "I believe I can help you."  He asked the man his name, wrote out a check, and pushed it into his hand saying,  "Take this money. Meet me here exactly one year from today, and you can pay me  back at that time." Then he turned and disappeared as quickly as he had come.

The business executive saw in his hand a check for $500,000, signed by John D. Rockefeller,  then one of the richest men in the world!
"I can erase my money worries in an instant!" he realized.Nonetheless, the executive decided to  put the check in his safe first. Just knowing it was there, would give him the strength to work  out away to save his business, he thought.
With renewed optimism, he negotiated better deals and got extended terms of payment from  creditors. Soon he could close some big sales. Within a few months, he was out of debt and  making money once again.

Exactly a year later, he returned to the park with that uncashed check. The old man did not  appear for some time yet the business executive decided to wait for a while more.

A while later  the old man came along the way but seemed to be unmindful of the business executive. He stopped  the old man and was about the hand over the cheque with a few words of thanks as well as share  his success story.

At the same time, he saw a nurse come running up and grabbing the old man. "I'm so glad I caught  him!" she cried. "I hope he hasn't been bothering you. He's always escaping from the rest home  and telling people he's John D. Rockefeller." And she led the old man away by the arm.

The astonished executive just stood there, stunned. All year long he'd been wheeling and  dealing, buying and selling, convinced he had half a million dollars behind him. Suddenly, he  realized that it wasn't the money, real or imagined, that had turned his life around. It was  his new found self-confidence that gave him the power to achieve anything he went after.  He understood that Confidence is nothing but the distant vision held positively no matter what  comes in between. It comes from one's own commitment and dedication and entirely internal.

"Our duty is to encourage everyone in his struggle to live up to his own highest idea, and  strive at the same time to make the ideal as near as possible to the truth"

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2013

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2013 was awarded jointly to James E. Rothman, Randy W. Schekman and Thomas C. Südhof "for their discoveries of machinery regulating vesicle traffic, a major transport system in our cells".

A Presentation to summerize the discovery

The nobel prize in Medicine/Physiology 2013 from DS Murty

Summary of the Press Release by the Nobel Foundation

Summary

The 2013 Nobel Prize honours three scientists who have solved the mystery of how the cell organizes its transport system. Each cell is a factory that produces and exports molecules. For instance, insulin is manufactured and released into the blood and chemical signals called neurotransmitters are sent from one nerve cell to another. These molecules are transported around the cell in small packages called vesicles. The three Nobel Laureates have discovered the molecular principles that govern how this cargo is delivered to the right place at the right time in the cell.

Randy Schekman discovered a set of genes that were required for vesicle traffic. James Rothman  unravelled protein machinery that allows vesicles to fuse with their targets to permit transfer of cargo. Thomas Südhof revealed how signals instruct vesicles to release their cargo with precision.

Through their discoveries, Rothman, Schekman and Südhof have revealed the exquisitely precise control system for the transport and delivery of cellular cargo. Disturbances in this system have deleterious effects and contribute to conditions such as neurological diseases, diabetes, and immunological disorders.

How cargo is transported in the cell

In a large and busy port, systems are required to ensure that the correct cargo is shipped to the correct destination at the right time. The cell, with its different compartments called organelles, faces a similar problem: cells produce molecules such as hormones, neurotransmitters, cytokines and enzymes that have to be delivered to other places inside the cell, or exported out of the cell, at exactly the right moment. Timing and location are everything. Miniature bubble-like vesicles, surrounded by membranes, shuttle the cargo between organelles or fuse with the outer membrane of the cell and release their cargo to the outside. This is of major importance, as it triggers nerve activation in the case of transmitter substances, or controls metabolism in the case of hormones. How do these vesicles know where and when to deliver their cargo?

Traffic congestion reveals genetic controllers

Randy Schekman was fascinated by how the cell organizes its transport system and in the 1970s decided to study its genetic basis by using yeast as a model system. In a genetic screen, he identified yeast cells with defective transport machinery, giving rise to a situation resembling a poorly planned public transport system. Vesicles piled up in certain parts of the cell. He found that the cause of this congestion was genetic and went on to identify the mutated genes. Schekman identified three classes of genes that control different facets of the cell´s transport system, thereby providing new insights into the tightly regulated machinery that mediates vesicle transport in the cell.

Docking with precision

James Rothman was also intrigued by the nature of the cell´s transport system. When studying vesicle transport in mammalian cells in the 1980s and 1990s, Rothman discovered that a protein complex enables vesicles to dock and fuse with their target membranes. In the fusion process, proteins on the vesicles and target membranes bind to each other like the two sides of a zipper. The fact that there are many such proteins and that they bind only in specific combinations ensures that cargo is delivered to a precise location. The same principle operates inside the cell and when a vesicle binds to the cell´s outer membrane to release its contents.

It turned out that some of the genes Schekman had discovered in yeast coded for proteins corresponding to those Rothman identified in mammals, revealing an ancient evolutionary origin of the transport system. Collectively, they mapped critical components of the cell´s transport machinery.

Timing is everything

Thomas Südhof was interested in how nerve cells communicate with one another in the brain. The signalling molecules, neurotransmitters, are released from vesicles that fuse with the outer membrane of nerve cells by using the machinery discovered by Rothman and Schekman. But these vesicles are only allowed to release their contents when the nerve cell signals to its neighbours. How is this release controlled in such a precise manner? Calcium ions were known to be involved in this process and in the 1990s, Südhof searched for calcium sensitive proteins in nerve cells. He identified molecular machinery that responds to an influx of calcium ions and directs neighbour proteins rapidly to bind vesicles to the outer membrane of the nerve cell. The zipper opens up and signal substances are released. Südhof´s discovery explained how temporal precision is achieved and how vesicles´ contents can be released on command.

Vesicle transport gives insight into disease processes

The three Nobel Laureates have discovered a fundamental process in cell physiology. These discoveries have had a major impact on our understanding of how cargo is delivered with timing and precision within and outside the cell.  Vesicle transport and fusion operate, with the same general principles, in organisms as different as yeast and man. The system is critical for a variety of physiological processes in which vesicle fusion must be controlled, ranging from signalling in the brain to release of hormones and immune cytokines. Defective vesicle transport occurs in a variety of diseases including a number of neurological and immunological disorders, as well as in diabetes. Without this wonderfully precise organization, the cell would lapse into chaos.

James E. Rothman was born 1950 in Haverhill, Massachusetts, USA. He received his PhD from Harvard Medical School in 1976, was a postdoctoral fellow at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and moved in 1978 to Stanford University in California, where he started his research on the vesicles of the cell. Rothman has also worked at Princeton University, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Institute and Columbia University. In 2008, he joined the faculty of Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut, USA, where he is currently Professor and Chairman in the Department of Cell Biology.

Randy W. Schekman was born 1948 in St Paul, Minnesota, USA, studied at the University of California in Los Angeles and at Stanford University, where he obtained his PhD in 1974 under the supervision of Arthur Kornberg (Nobel Prize 1959) and in the same department that Rothman joined a few years later. In 1976, Schekman joined the faculty of the University of California at Berkeley, where he is currently Professor in the Department of Molecular and Cell biology. Schekman is also an investigator of Howard Hughes Medical Institute.

Thomas C. Südhof was born in 1955 in Göttingen, Germany. He studied at the Georg-August-Universität in Göttingen, where he received an MD in 1982 and a Doctorate in neurochemistry the same year. In 1983, he moved to the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center in Dallas, Texas, USA, as a postdoctoral fellow with Michael Brown and Joseph Goldstein (who shared the 1985 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine). Südhof became an investigator of Howard Hughes Medical Institute in 1991 and was appointed Professor of Molecular and Cellular Physiology at Stanford University in 2008.

Source : http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2013/press.html

IAMM AP CHAPTER GUIDELINES SERIES : INTRODUCTION

One scenario :

“What did you see in the smear”

“Gram positive cocci in clusters sir”

“Did you do hanging drop”

“No sir”

“WHY…..?! who told you not to do?....(gives a scornful look at the internals and says,) OK. Name some motile cocci”

********

Another scenario :

“What did you see in the smear”

“Gram positive cocci in clusters sir”

“Did you do hanging drop”

“Yes  sir.. they are nonmotile”

“WHY…..?! who told you to do the hanging drop ? ?....(gives a scornful look at the internals and says,)  you are wasting time and resources. Are there any pathogenic cocci that are motile ? NO. then why did you do. ”

****

Everybody who are attending the PG practical examinations regularly (as a facilitating faculty/internal or as a candidate..!) would have witnessed such conversations. Leave alone the confusions in the diagnostic microbiology.

The already tense exam-going PGs are exposed to several such ambiguities. Ambiguities, right from the Gram staining. And different colleges in the state, different batches in the college, different faculty have different opinions even on simple things (the paradox is, even 12th edition of Cruickshank differs from 14th ed in certain issues.Koneman gives different version from other books in some aspects. Bailey and scott or Monica Cheesbrough adds to variety). Let the ambiguities persist in the science.. that is quiet natural and needed too for testing and trying different variables in varying situations. But, as far as examinations are concerned, the ambiguity may cost the degree and put the candidate in undue or unreasonable stress.

In this context, IAMM AP Chapter publishes certain suggestions regarding the split-up and distribution of marks in the  PG practical examinations, submitted by Dr. P.Sreenivasulu Reddy, Professor of Microbiology, Narayana Medical College, Nellore. These are based on regular NTRUHS exam pattern with further elaboration of the split up of marks.  All are requested to go through the file and please submit your comments and suggestions (either through comments in the blog directly  or through email to iammapchapter@yahoo.co.in).

  

click here to go to the guidelines series published by IAMM AP CHAPTER

****
A comment  that appeared  on the guidelines, for information to visitors of this blog : 
(July 1, 2013 at 3:45 PM)

Dear....I should congratulate you for the concern and admire you for your initiative. Any attempt to set things move in the proper direction is always 'WELCOME' But something puzzles me....

HOW DO YOU RATE THE TRAINING YOU HAVE RECEIVED AS A POST GRADUATE?

IF YOUR ANSWER IS SATISFACTORY .......

THEN WHY ARE WE FEELING THAT THE SAME SYSTEM OF EXAMINATION NEEDS A REVAMP?

THE FAULT IS NOT WITH THE SYSTEM BUT WITH THE ATTITUDE OF THE PEOPLE GOVERNING THE SYSTEM.

CAN WE DO SOMETHING TO ADDRESS THIS FIRST?

Ofcourse YES, if only we have people like you who recognizes the problem! Keep it up
****
My reply :

Thank you for your comments and compliments;
I rate the training I have received as a Postgraduate as 'satisfactory' in the given settings and available facilities in those days.

And, it is not the reason to stop or start any innovative activity. There will always be a scope for improvement even for the so called best circumstances. We can always work on improving the circumstances or the training we give for the students. That is an incessent process...!

And, I dont want to revamp any....I am not that big. I am a tiny creature in the whole big system. My intention is just to throw some light on the existing ambiguities in the examination system.
As you mentioned, the fault may not be with the system. but, it is the system we all passed through...and watching our juniors to pass through. we have to watch the same for several more years to come.

We can not help with the individual attitudes of either the examiners or the students. Nobody can help it. It will be ONLY the individual introspection that brings about change in their attitudes..not any other external force.
A change in the smaller things will gradually reflect in course of time as a major change in the system . I am a strong believer of this concept.

With this, I request you and other seniors to please provide strength to pursue the goal, by providing your valuable suggestions and guidance.

You may be too modest to not to mention your name, but we will be more happy if we could know who are leaving the comments. And even more happy to get your blessings in my endeavours.- with regards- Dr. D.S.Murty  
****

click here to go to the guidelines series published by IAMM AP CHAPTER

Love Your Irritations

A piece of interesting collection shared by one of my friend through email . This is a good one, that guides us to have introspection of our weaknesses and a simple way that motivates us to overcome those negative traits. I am just sharing it here with thanks to the original source.
*****
Khalil Gibran, one of the greatest thinkers, once wrote: "I have learned silence from the talkative, tolerance from the intolerant, and kindness from the unkind; yet, strange, I am grateful to those teachers"
***

A psychiatrist was consulted by a man whose marriage and career were both in serious trouble. His problem was his constant irritability and bad temper. He was concerned about this himself, but if any one tried to discuss it with him, he exploded in anger. He constantly told himself that everyone was picking on him and that he had to defend himself against them.
To counter the negative auto suggestion, he advised him to use positive autosuggestion. Several times a day in the morning, noon, and at night prior to sleep he was to repeat to himself.

"From now on, I shall grow more good-humored. Joy, happiness, and cheerfulness are now becoming my natural states of mind.
Every day I am becoming more and more lovable and understanding.
I will be center of cheer and goodwill to all those around me, infecting them with my good spirits.
This happy, joyous, and cheerful mood is now becoming my normal, natural state of mind. I am grateful "

 After a month, his wife and his coworkers remarked on how much easier he was to get along with.

 The things that drive you crazy are actually giant opportunities. The people who press your buttons are actually your greatest teachers. The issues that make you angry are actually your biggest gifts. Be grateful to them. Love them.
The people or circumstances that take you out of your power have extraordinary value: they reveal your limiting beliefs, fears and false assumptions. The celebrated psychologist Carl Jung once said: "Everything that irritates us about others can lead us to an understanding of ourselves." Powerful point. The things that irritate, annoy and anger you are entry points into your evolution and elevation as a human being. They are signposts for what you need to work on and the fears you need to face. They are gifts of growth. You can blame the people who trigger you and make it all about them. Or you can do the wise thing and look deeply into yourself to discover the reason for your negative reaction. Use the challenges to grow self-awareness. Because how can you overcome a fear you are not even aware of? And how can you transcend an insecurity you don't even know you have?
As you begin to shed light on your personal weaknesses and take responsibility for them, you actually begin the very process of shedding them. You become stronger. More powerful. You begin to see the world through a different set of eyes.

Kindness...timely display..!

One day, a poor boy who was selling goods from door to door to pay his way through school, found he had only one thin dime left, and he was hungry.

He decided he would ask for a meal at the next house.
However, he lost his nerve when a lovely young woman opened the door. Instead of a meal he asked for a drink of water. 

She thought he looked hungry so brought him a large
glass of milk He drank it slowly, and then asked, "How much do I owe you?""You don't owe me anything," she replied "Mother has taught us never to accept payment for a kindness."

He said... "Then I thank you from my heart." 
As Howard Kelly left that house, he not only felt; stronger physically, but his faith in God and man was strong also. He had been ready to give up and quit. Years later that young woman became critically ill. The local doctors were baffled. They finally sent her to the big city, where they called in specialists to study her rare disease. Dr. Howard Kelly was called in for the consultation.
When he heard the name of the town she came from, a strange light filled his eyes. Immediately he rose and went down the hall of the hospital to her room. Dressed in his doctor's gown he went in to see her. 

He recognized her at once. He went back to the consultation
room determined to do his best to save her life. From that day he gave special attention to the case. After a long struggle, the battle was won. Dr. Kelly requested the business office to pass the final bill to him for approval.

He looked at it, then wrote something on the edge and the bill was sent to her room. She feared to open it, for she was sure it would take the rest of her life to pay for it all. Finally, she looked, and something caught her attention on the side as she read these
words...... 

"Paid in full with one glass of milk." (Signed) Dr. Howard Kelly.
Tears of joy flooded her eyes & happy heart.
****


(.....A collection from one of the  mails I got )

Science...Discarding It..?! (Part 2)

In Facebook or other social media, I see some comments on religion and science (mostly making fun of them). But, please understand that... In olden days, science and religion are practiced together. They tried to spread science under the cover of religious respect...which are easy to follow even by those who did not understand them. gradually, the people who knew the actual science became extinct and there is increment of  people who go on  degrade religious customs without properly  understanding them. Some people say growing tulasi at home is for religious symbol. Actually few Western scientists are conducting  large-scale trials to confirm the benefits of tulsi leaves, including its anticancerous effects. If our aurveda says Kakara (bitter gourd) is good for madhu meha, the so-called  pseudo-scientific people will laugh. But,  some  colarado scientists declared recently that kakara(bitter gourd) cures diabetes and  pancreatic cancer.  Is there any name for the present day pseudo- scientists, whose priority agenda is to discard religious values and ancient knowledge without properly understanding them..? It is becoming a fashion to elevate our scientific value by degrading culture and religious values.  True scientists try to explore, understand and experiment  while Pseudo scientists try to project themselves as scientists by constantly criticising and show intolerance towards the religious values and ancient knowledge.
Just to share a recent news clipping about kakara (bitter gourd):
http://archives.eenadu.net/03-14-2013/news/newsitem.aspx?item=story&no=5
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NTR's awesome performance: Praying for Lord Shiva

NTR's awesome performance: Praying for Lord Shiva
in the movie, "Seetarama Kalyanam", produced and directed by him.  After the siva tandava stotram, the performance of rudraveena is even more spectacular.
Part 1 : siva tandava stotram
Part 2 : Rudra veena